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Glossary of Terms
Acrylamide
Acrylamide is a byproduct that forms naturally when certain carbohydrate-rich foods are fried, baked, or roasted at high temperatures. The mechanism by which acrylamide forms is not fully understood, but it may be related to the Maillard browning reaction. There has been concern about acrylamide in food because when fed to rats at very high levels it has been shown to cause cancer. The scientific evidence on human consumption of acrylamide is not conclusive.
Alpha Linolenic Acid (ALA)
ALA is a short-chain omega-3 fatty acid found in many common vegetable oils, including flaxseed, canola, and soybean oils. It is an essential fatty acid that can be converted at low levels to the long chain omega-3 fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). ALA may play a role in health, as some evidence points to a lower risk of cardiovascular disease, although the mechanism by which it has its effect is unclear and may be different from that of long chain omega-3 fatty acids.
Calorie
A calorie is a unit of energy. In regards to food energy the term calorie is more commonly recognized, but is used interchangeably with the terms kilogram calorie or kilocalorie. A calorie (or kilocalorie) represents the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by one degree Celsius.
Canola Oil
Canola oil is pressed from canola seeds, which are produced by yellow flowering plants of the Brassica family. Canola has become the second largest selling oil in North America. In the early 1970s, the canola plant was naturally bred from its parent, the rapeseed plant. Canola oil is recognized for its nutritional attributes as it contains the lowest level of saturated fatty acids of any vegetable oil and is trans fat-free. It is high in monounsaturated fatty acids and has moderate levels of essential polyunsaturated fatty acids. It is also a rich source of vitamin E. Like all vegetable oils, canola oil is cholesterol-free.
Corn Oil
Corn oil is extracted from the germ of corn grain. It was first extracted in the late 1800s. Corn oil can be used in many applications and has a high smoke point. It is commonly found in margarines because of its mild flavor and light color. It is rich in polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acids, low in saturated fat, and is trans fat-free. Corn oil also has many alternative uses such as in textiles and biodiesel.
Cottonseed Oil
Cottonseed oil is extracted from the seed of the cotton plant. Cottonseed oil was first bottled in 1882 and in 1911 became the main ingredient of Crisco, which is short for “crystallized cottonseed oil.” Cottonseed oil is high in polyunsaturated fatty acids, but has a higher level of saturated fat than some other oils, which contributes to its stable shelf life. Cottonseed oil has high levels of tocopherols and a reasonably high smoke point. It is often a primary ingredient in shortening and margarine, and has been commonly used in commercial frying, such as in the production of potato chips.
Deodorized
Deodorized refers to the fact that an oil has gone through the last major processing step in the refining process. Deodorization removes undesirable ingredients that naturally occur in oils and fats as well as those created during processing, thereby removing off-flavors and odors in edible oils.
Dietary Fat
Dietary fat is a macronutrient that imparts flavor to food and provides a major source of dietary energy. It also helps our bodies to absorb certain vitamins and other fat-soluble food components. Some dietary fats are essential for survival because they are not made by the body, such as linolenic acid, an omega-3 polyunsaturated dietary fat. Because fats have different health profiles, dietary recommendations for fat suggest that saturated and trans fats should be limited, while mono- and polyunsaturated fats should be included in the diet.
Expeller Pressed
Expeller pressed refers to a process used to extract oil mainly from nuts and seeds by crushing them. Although the oil yield is somewhat reduced, expeller pressed oils are generally considered to have better quality and nutrition value because chemicals are not used in the extraction process.
Fry Life
Fry life refers to the amount of time the oil lasts in a deep fryer before breaking down to the point where it negatively affects food quality. Several factors, including using high-quality frying oil and having good fry station management practices, lead to an increased fry life.
Gamma Linolenic Acid (GLA)
Gamma linolenic acid is an omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid found primarily in vegetable oils. It was first isolated from evening primrose. GLA is thought to have anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer properties but conclusive research is ongoing.
Genetically Modified Organism (GMO)
GMO refers to an organism that is genetically modified when its genetic material is altered via genetic engineering techniques, such as when DNA is inserted to form a new set of genes. Some oils have been genetically modified to have specific traits, such as drought resistance, or to produce a higher yield of oil. In regards to oils, genetic modification is different from selective or natural plant breeding, which has been carried out for thousands of years. Often when breeding techniques are used, plants with desirable characteristics would be selected for crossbreeding.
Grape Seed Oil
Grape seed oil is a vegetable oil pressed from a variety of grapes. It is often a by-product of wine making and is used in various applications. Grape seed oil was not produced or used on a large scale until the 20th century, largely because grape seeds yield a small amount of oil compared to other oil-producing seeds, nuts, or beans. It has a relatively high smoke point and has a clean, light taste.
Healthy Oils
Healthy oils refer to oils that meet recommendations for health. That is, they are low in saturated and trans fats and provide sufficient levels of mono- and poly unsaturated fats. The American Heart Association recommendation is to choose “vegetable oils and margarines with liquid vegetable oil as the first listed ingredient and no more than 2 grams of saturated fat per tablespoon.” They list canola, corn, olive, safflower, sesame, soybean, and sunflower oils as examples of healthy oils.
High-Oleic
High-oleic is a term used to indicate the presence of high levels (>70%) of oleic fatty acids (C18:1). Some newer generation oils have been bred or genetically modified to contain higher levels of oleic acid because it contributes stability without hydrogenation and is much less prone to oxidation and breakdown compared to other unsaturated fats. The increased stability results in increased oil fry life, fewer oil changes per year, and overall reduced food costs. Oils that have high levels of oleic acid are referred to as “high-oleic,” “high stability,” or “Omega-9” oils. Oleic fatty acids are monounsaturated and are therefore considered healthy fats. They contribute to a healthy diet and are known to reduce cholesterol as well as the risk of heart disease and diabetes.
HDL Cholesterol
HDL cholesterol is commonly known as “good” cholesterol because high levels of HDL seem to protect against heart disease. When HDL cholesterol is low (less than 40 mg/dL), the risk of heart disease also increases. It is thought that HDL carries cholesterol away from the arteries and back to the liver, such that it is passed from the body. Another belief is that HDL removes excess cholesterol from arterial plaques, which slows the progression of atherosclerosis.
High-Stearic
High-stearic is a term used with some of the newer generation oils that have been bred or genetically modified to have higher levels of stearic acid. Stearic acid is a saturated fatty acid that lends stability to these oils. Although it is saturated, research shows that it has somewhat neutral effects on blood cholesterol levels.
Hydrogenation
Hydrogenation is a process by which hydrogen is added to liquid vegetable oils converting unsaturated fatty acids to saturated fatty acids, thereby improving their stability and shelf life. Full hydrogenation turns liquid oils into a solid fat. As a byproduct of this process, unnatural trans fat is produced. A body of evidence has shown that trans fat can lead to increased “bad” LDL cholesterol and decreased “good” HDL cholesterol, as well as possibly trigger inflammation, all of which are risk factors for heart disease.
Interesterification
nteresterification is a processing technique that rearranges fatty acids within and among molecules of oil. The process changes the melting profile of the oil, which can allow for improvements in stability. It can be carried out chemically or enzymatically and unlike hydrogenation, interesterification does not cause trans fat formation.
LDL Cholesterol
LDL cholesterol is considered “bad” cholesterol. When LDL is too high in the blood it can slowly build up in the inner walls of the arteries that provide blood flow to the heart and brain. LDL can be a component of plaque that is found in the arteries, and can contribute to atherosclerosis. LDL is thought to increase with the consumption of saturated and trans fats.
Low Linolenic
Low linolenic is a term used to indicate that linolenic acid (C18:3) levels are low in the oil. Some newer generation oils have been bred or genetically modified to have low levels (<3.0%) of linolenic acid because when linolenic acid levels are too high, stability of the oil is reduced and the oil is prone to oxidative breakdown. Low linolenic oils are highly stable without hydrogenation. This increased stability means the oil does not break down as easily, which results in increased fry life of the oil, less oil changes per year, and overall reduced food costs.
Monounsaturated Fats
Monounsaturated fats refer to a class of monounsaturated fatty acids that have only one double bond. Compared to polyunsaturated fat, which can have multiple bonds, monounsaturated fats are more stable and less likely to oxidize. Numerous studies indicate that monounsaturated fats have a favorable effect on the ratio of HDL (good) to LDL (bad) cholesterol and the risk of cardiovascular disease. Monounsaturated fats are high in “high-oleic” and “Omega-9” oils, as well as olive, canola, peanut, sunflower, and safflower oils.
Olive Oil
Olive oil comes from the olive fruit. It is used throughout the world, but is best known for its abundant usage in the Mediterranean. It is touted for its health benefits, which are partly due to its high levels of monounsaturated fat, primarily oleic acid. Olive oil is one oil that has a low smoke point and so is not the best oil for deep-frying, however it is widely used as table and sauté oil. There are many different retail grades of olive oil, which include “extra-virgin,” “virgin,” “pure,” etc., which were named by the International Olive Oil Council. These grades may reflect the quality and acidity of the oil. The U.S. defines different grades based on free fatty acid content. Olive oil that is considered highest quality is extra-virgin.
Omega-3 Fatty Acids
Omega-3 fatty acids are polyunsaturated fatty acids that include α-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). ALA is a short-chain fatty acid and is found primarily in vegetable oils; whereas EPA and DHA are long-chain fatty acids more commonly recognized as “fish oils” or “marine oils” since algae produce them. There has been increasing awareness of the health benefits of omega-3 fatty acids. Research shows that ALA and EPA/DHA may benefit the risk of heart disease, but that they have different mechanisms of action. EPA/DHA have the most evidence when it comes to heart-health and emerging research shows that they may have anti-cancer effects, impact immune function, and improve brain health. Because omega-3 fatty acids have multiple bonds, they are the least stable making them more likely to break down with intense cooking applications.
Omega-9 Fatty Acids
Omega-9 fatty acids are a family of fatty acids found in various plants. They are also known as high-oleic acids, or monounsaturated fats. Canola, sunflower, olive, and nut oils have significant levels of omega-9 fatty acids. New generation oils such as Omega-9 Canola and Sunflower Oils are uniquely high (>70%) in omega-9 fatty acids. These oils have emerged as healthier, stable options to replace commonly used partially hydrogenated oils, which often contain high levels of unhealthy trans and saturated fats.
Omega-9 Oils
Omega-9 Oils, developed by represent the "next generation" of cooking oils that allow foodservice and food manufacturers to deliver healthier foods without compromising taste or performance. Omega-9 Oils have zero trans fat, the lowest saturated fat among cooking oils, and are uniquely high (>70%) in monounsaturated (good) fat.
Palm Oil
Palm oil is extracted from the pulp of the fruit of the oil palm tree, whereas palm kernel oil comes from the kernel. Palm oil was introduced to Malaysia in 1870 and has wide foodservice application. The use of palm oil has increased as trans fat has been phased out of the food supply because it provides stability without hydrogenation and is trans fat-free. Palm oil is high in saturated fat, which has been shown to increase bad LDL cholesterol levels. Palm oil also contains some antioxidants, such as carotenoids and tocotrienols.
Partially Hydrogenated
Partially hydrogenated is a term used to describe oils that have undergone a process that takes them from a liquid to a semi-solid as some of the unsaturated fatty acids are converted to saturated fatty acids. Oils that are partially hydrogenated are very stable and can be used in a number of applications. The process of partial hydrogenation, however, causes the formation of trans fat, which research shows is detrimental to health. Legislation to eliminate the use of partially hydrogenated oils has been passed in numerous states and localities and many of these oils are being phased out.
Peanut Oil
Peanut oil is a non-genetically modified vegetable oil recognized for its health benefits and functionality in many applications. Peanut oil provides vitamin E and phytosterols and is high in healthy monounsaturated fats. Human studies have shown that it reduces cholesterol levels and heart disease risk similar to olive oil. Refined peanut oil is the main type utilized in major US fast food chains because it is naturally stable, cholesterol free, trans fat-free, has a high smoke point, is non-allergenic (as the refining process removes any allergic proteins), and its pleasing flavor does not transfer food flavors. Refined Peanut oil has historically been used for deep fat frying of turkey, chicken, fish, French fries and potato chips. Gourmet roasted peanut oils are also available in many retail outlets.
Polyunsaturated Fats
Polyunsaturated fats include omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. They have multiple double bonds, which makes them liquid at room temperature and less stable in cooking applications. They are found in many grains, nuts, seeds, and fish. Polyunsaturated fats have generally been shown to support heart health, but the role of omega-3 on health is different from that of omega-6. These roles are continuing to be defined..
Refined Oil
In regards to edible oils, refined oil has been processed to remove impurities that could cause rancidity as well as components such as free fatty acids and allergens. Refining also bleaches and deodorizes oil, removing any off-flavors and aromas. Whereas oils that are unrefined are used as salad or light cooking oils and in marinades and sauces, refined oils can be used in all of these applications as well as in heavy cooking such as deep-frying.
Safflower Oil
Safflower oil comes from the safflower plant, which is actually in the sunflower family. It has been used for centuries and is adaptable to a variety of cooking applications. There are two main types of safflower oil available today. One is high in polyunsaturated fat; the other, which is more common, is high in monounsaturated fat. The more common type is called high-oleic safflower oil. High-oleic safflower oil provides stability without hydrogenation, but may only be available in limited quantities.
Saturated Fat
Saturated fats have chemical bonds that are more stable than unsaturated fats. and they are therefore solid at room temperature in most situations, whereas unsaturated fats are liquid. Saturated fats are found in many animal products and are considered to be one of the main dietary factors that contribute to raising “bad” LDL cholesterol and increasing the risk of heart disease.
Sesame Oil
Sesame oil is derived from sesame seeds, which were one of the first crops processed for oil. Sesame oil is commonly used as a cooking oil in various Asian cuisines. Roasted sesame oil is used more for flavoring and has a lower smoke point, whereas light sesame oil has a high smoke point, and is used in deep-frying, but may have limited availability. Sesame oil is high in both mono- and polyunsaturated fats and contains many antioxidants, such as vitamin E.
Soy Oil
Soy or soybean oil is one of the most common and versatile edible oils in the world. Typically marketed to consumers as “vegetable oil,” soybean oil accounts for 75% of all vegetable fat and oil consumed in the U.S. It is made by refining the whole soybean, either by pressing or chemical extraction. Soy oil is light in color, has a neutral flavor and aroma, and a very high smoke point. It is cost-effective and high in unsaturated fats.Stearic Acid
Stearic acid is a saturated fatty acid. Saturated fats enhance stability because they are more solid at room temperature. For this reason, some of the new generation oils have bred or genetically modified oilseeds to produce higher levels of stearic acid. Although saturated fats are known to increase bad LDL cholesterol, stearic acid has a neutral affect on blood lipids.
Sunflower Oil
Sunflower oil is produced from oil type sunflower seeds. Different varieties of sunflower oil provide a combination of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats with low saturated fat levels. The main type of sunflower oil produced in the U.S. currently is “mid-oleic” sunflower oil. High-oleic and high linoleic versions are also available. Sunflower oil is commonly used in food as a frying oil. It is light in taste and appearance and has a high vitamin E content.
Trans Fat (Trans Fatty Acids)
Trans fat that is found in fried and processed foods is manufactured or artificial. Natural trans fatty acids are also found in certain animal products, mainly in dairy. Manufactured or artificial trans fat is created through the hydrogenation process. Oils with trans fat have been widely used in food preparation because the oils have been readily available and easy to produce, they impart a recognized taste and texture, they are very stable and can be used in multiple applications, and they have a long fry life. Studies have shown that manufactured or artificial trans fat can impact the risk of heart disease by increasing “bad” LDL cholesterol and decreasing “good” HDL cholesterol, as well as contributing to inflammation. Legislation was passed in 2006 to label trans fat on food packages and since that time legislation has been passed to limit and ban trans fat across the country. Current U.S. dietary recommendations suggest limiting or avoiding trans fat.
Vegetable Oil
Vegetable oils are extracted from various plants, usually from their seeds. Vegetable oils are often used as an ingredient or component in many manufactured foods. In the U.S., the USDA Standard of Identity for a product labeled as vegetable oil margarine specifies that only canola, safflower, sunflower, corn, soybean, or peanut oil may be used. Not all vegetable oil is edible and so it is also used in lubricants, paints, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and for other industrial purposes.